Abstract
Abstract. The paper here investigates possible relationships between violent crime, migration and unemployment. Results seem to show an association between some crimes - such as theft, assaults and sexual violence- and immigration but not between intentional homicides and immigration. Preliminary evidence also suggests that intentional homicides are associated with high rates of unemployment, linking this violent crime to socioeconomic and situational factors within countries. In addition, unlike commonplace opinions, statistical evidence here reveals that rich countries have levels of violent crime higher than poor countries. Especially, violent crime in central-northern European regions (geo-economic areas with high GDP per capita, e.g., Germany, Finland, Norway, etc.) is higher than Mediterranean countries with lower GDP per capita (e.g., Greece, Italy, Spain, etc.). These conclusions are of course tentative. There is need for much more detailed research into the relations between unemployment, immigration and violent crime to explain general causes of these social issues in modern economies. This study concludes with some socioeconomic implications and explanations.
Keywords. Violent crime, Violence, Theft, Sexual violence, Intentional homicides, Immigrants, Migration, Unemployment, Europe, Poverty, Mediterranean countries.
JEL. C10, I30, J10, J11, J15, J20, J60, J61, J62, O15.
References
Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., Robinson, J.A., & Yared, P. (2008). Income and democracy, American Economic Review, 98(3), 808-842. doi. 10.1257/aer.98.3.808
Ackoff, R.L., & Rovin, S. (2003). Redesigning Society. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
Agnew, R. (1985). A revised strain theory of delinquency. Social Forces, 64(1), 151-167. doi. 10.1093/sf/64.1.151
Agnew, R. (1985). A revised theory of delinquency. Social Forces, 64(1), 151-167. doi. 10.1093/sf/64.1.151
Akay, A., Constant, A., & Giulietti, C. (2014). The impact of immigration on the well-being of natives. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 103, 72-92. doi. 10.1016/j.jebo.2014.03.024
Allen, J.J., Anderson, C.A., & Bushman, B.J. (2018). The general aggression model. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 75–80. doi. 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.034
Anderson, C.A. (1989). Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 74-96. doi. 10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.74
Barone, G., D’Ignazio, A., De Blasio, G., & Naticchioni, P. (2016). Mr. Rossi, Mr. Hu and politics. The role of immigration in shaping natives' voting behaviour. Journal of Public Economics, 136, 1-13. doi. 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2016.03.002
Beckley, A. (2015). Age at immigration and crime in Stockholm using sibling comparisons. Social Science Research, 53, 239-242. doi. 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.06.006
Benati, I., & Coccia, M. (2017). General trends and causes of high compensation of government managers in the OECD countries, International Journal of Public Administration, 41(12), 1018-1031. doi. 10.1080/01900692.2017.1318399
Benati, I., & Coccia, M. (2018). Rewards in bureaucracy and politics. Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance –section Bureaucracy (edited by Ali Farazmand). Chapter No.3417-1. doi. 10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_3417-1
Borjas, G., Grogger, J., & Hanson, G. (2010). Immigration and the economic status of African-American men. Economica, 77(306), 255-282. doi. 10.1111/j.1468-0335.2009.00803.x
Calabrese, G., Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2005). Strategy and market management of new product development: evidence from Italian SMEs. International Journal of Product Development, 2(1-2), 170-189. doi. 10.1504/IJPD.2005.006675
Calcatelli, A., Coccia, M., Ferraris, K., & Tagliafico, I. (2003). Donne-scienza-tecnologia: analisi di un caso di studio. Working Paper Ceris del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 5(7), 1591-0709.
Cavallo, E., Ferrari, E., Bollani, L., & Coccia, M. (2014). Strategic management implications for the adoption of technological innovations in agricultural tractor: the role of scale factors and environmental attitude, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 26(7), 765-779. doi. 10.1080/09537325.2014.890706
Cavallo, E., Ferrari, E., & Coccia, M. (2015). Likely technological trajectories in agricultural tractors by analysing innovative attitudes of farmers. International Journal of Technology, Policy and Management, 15(2), 158-177. doi. 10.1504/IJTPM.2015.069203
Chagpar, A., & Coccia, M. (2012). Breast cancer and socio-economic factors. Working Paper of Public Health, No.7, Azienda Ospedaliera SS. Antonio e Biagio Arrigo, Alessandria, Italy.
Christens, B.D., & Speer, P.W. (2005). Predicting violent crime using urban and suburban densities. Behavior and Social Issues, 14(2), 113-127. doi. 10.5210/bsi.v14i2.334
Coccia, M. (2001). Satisfaction, work involvement and R&D performance. International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management, 1(2-3-4), 268-282. doi. 10.1504/IJHRDM.2001.001010
Coccia, M. (2003). Metrics of R&D performance and management of public research institute. Proceedings of IEEE- IEMC 03, Piscataway, pp.231-236.
Coccia, M. (2004). Spatial metrics of the technological transfer: analysis and strategic management. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 16(1), 31-52. doi. 10.1080/0953732032000175490
Coccia, M. (2005). Countrymetrics: valutazione della performance economica e tecnologica dei paesi e posizionamento dell’Italia, Rivista Internazionale di Scienze Sociali, CXIII(3), 377-412.
Coccia, M. (2005a). Metrics to measure the technology transfer absorption: analysis of the relationship between institutes and adopters in northern Italy. International Journal of Technology Transfer and Commercialization, 4(4), 462-486. doi. 10.1504/IJTTC.2005.006699
Coccia, M. (2005b). Technometrics: Origins, historical evolution and new direction, Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 72(8), 944-979. doi. 10.1016/j.techfore.2005.05.011
Coccia, M. (2005c). Economics of scientific research: origins, nature and structure, Proceedings of Economic Society of Australia.
Coccia, M. (2006). Classifications of innovations: survey and future directions. Working Paper Ceris del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 8(2), 1-19. [Retrieved from].
Coccia, M. (2006a). Analysis and classification of public research institutes. World Review of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 3(1), 1-16.
Coccia, M. (2007). A new taxonomy of country performance and risk based on economic and technological indicators, Journal of Applied Economics, 10(1), 29-42.
Coccia, M. (2008). Science, funding and economic growth: analysis and science policy implications. World Review of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 5(1), 1-27. doi. 10.1504/WRSTSD.2008.01781
Coccia, M. (2008a). Spatial mobility of knowledge transfer and absorptive capacity: analysis and measurement of the impact within the geoeconomic space. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 33(1), 105-122. doi. 10.1007/s10961-007-9032-4
Coccia, M. (2008b). New organizational behaviour of public research institutions: Lessons learned from Italian case study. International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, 2(4), 402–419. doi. 10.1504/IJBIR.2008.018589
Coccia, M. (2009). A new approach for measuring and analyzing patterns of regional economic growth: empirical analysis in Italy. Italian Journal of Regional Science- Scienze Regionali, 8(2), 71-95. doi. 10.3280/SCRE2009-002004
Coccia, M. (2009a). Measuring the impact of sustainable technological innovation, International Journal of Technology Intelligence and Planning, 5(3), 276-288. doi. 10.1504/IJTIP.2009.026749
Coccia, M. (2010). Public and private R&D investments as complementary inputs for productivity growth. International Journal of Technology, Policy and Management, 10(1/2), 73-91. doi. 10.1504/IJTPM.2010.032855
Coccia, M. (2010a). Foresight of technological determinants and primary energy resources of future economic long waves, International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy, 6(4), 225–232. doi. 10.1504/IJFIP.2010.037468
Coccia, M. (2010b). Energy metrics for driving competitiveness of countries: Energy weakness magnitude, GDP per barrel and barrels per capita. Energy Policy, 38(3), 1330-1339. doi. 10.1016/j.enpol.2009.11.011
Coccia, M. (2010c). Spatial patterns of technology transfer and measurement of its friction in the geo-economic space. International Journal of Technology Transfer and Commercialisation, 9(3), 255-267. doi. 10.1504/IJTTC.2010.030214
Coccia, M. (2010d). The asymmetric path of economic long waves, Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 77(5), 730-738. doi. 10.1016/j.techfore.2010.02.003
Coccia, M. (2010e). Democratization is the driving force for technological and economic change, Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 77(2), 248-264. doi. 10.1016/j.techfore.2009.06.007
Coccia, M. (2011). The interaction between public and private R&D expenditure and national productivity. Prometheus-Critical Studies in Innovation, 29(2), 121-130. doi. 10.1080/08109028.2011.601079
Coccia, M. (2012). Political economy of R&D to support the modern competitiveness of nations and determinants of economic optimization and inertia, Technovation, 32(6), 370–379. doi. 10.1016/j.technovation.2012.03.005
Coccia, M. (2012a). Evolutionary trajectories of the nanotechnology research across worldwide economic players. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 24(10), 1029-1050. doi. 10.1080/09537325.2012.705117
Coccia, M. (2012b). Evolutionary growth of knowledge in path-breaking targeted therapies for lung cancer: radical innovations and structure of the new technological paradigm. International Journal of Behavioural and Healthcare Research, 3(3-4), 273-290. doi. 10.1504/IJBHR.2012.051406
Coccia, M. (2012c). Converging genetics, genomics and nanotechnologies for groundbreaking pathways in biomedicine and nanomedicine. International Journal of Healthcare Technology and Management, 13(4), 184-197. doi. 10.1504/IJHTM.2012.050616
Coccia, M. (2012d). Driving forces of technological change in medicine: Radical innovations induced by side effects and their impact on society and healthcare. Technology in Society, 34(4), 271-283. doi. 10.1016/j.techsoc.2012.06.002
Coccia, M. (2013). What are the likely interactions among innovation, government debt, and employment? Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 26(4), 456–471. doi. 10.1080/13511610.2013.863704
Coccia, M. (2013a). The effect of country wealth on incidence of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 141(2), 225-229. doi. 10.1007/s10549-013-2683-y
Coccia, M. (2014). Path-breaking target therapies for lung cancer and a far-sighted health policy to support clinical and cost effectiveness. Health Policy and Technology, 1(3), 74-82. doi. 10.1016/j.hlpt.2013.09.007
Coccia, M. (2014a). Emerging technological trajectories of tissue engineering and the critical directions in cartilage regenerative medicine. Int. J. Healthcare Technology and Management, 14(3), 194-208. doi. 10.1504/IJHTM.2014.064247
Coccia, M. (2014b). Converging scientific fields and new technological paradigms as main drivers of the division of scientific labour in drug discovery process: the effects on strategic management of the R&D corporate change. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 26(7), 733-749, doi. 10.1080/09537325.2014.882501
Coccia, M. (2014c). Driving forces of technological change: The relation between population growth and technological innovation-Analysis of the optimal interaction across countries, Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 82(2), 52-65. doi. 10.1016/j.techfore.2013.06.001
Coccia, M. (2014). Socio-cultural origins of the patterns of technological innovation: What is the likely interaction among religious culture, religious plurality and innovation? Towards a theory of socio-cultural drivers of the patterns of technological innovation, Technology in Society, 36(1), 13-25. doi. 10.23760/2421-7158.2017.004
Coccia, M. (2014e). Religious culture, democratisation and patterns of technological innovation. International Journal of Sustainable Society, 6(4), 397-418. doi. 10.1504/IJSSOC.2014.066771
Coccia, M. (2014f). Structure and organisational behaviour of public research institutions under unstable growth of human resources, Int. J. Services Technology and Management, 20(4/5/6), 251–266. doi. 10.1504/IJSTM.2014.068857
Coccia, M. (2014g). Steel market and global trends of leading geo-economic players. International Journal of Trade and Global Markets, 7(1), 36-52, doi. 10.1504/IJTGM.2014.058714
Coccia, M. (2015). The Nexus between technological performances of countries and incidence of cancers in society. Technology in Society, 42, 61-70. doi. 10.1016/j.techsoc.2015.02.003
Coccia, M. (2015a). Patterns of innovative outputs across climate zones: the geography of innovation, Prometheus. Critical Studies in Innovation, 33(2), 165-186. doi. 10.1080/08109028.2015.1095979
Coccia, M. (2015b). General sources of general purpose technologies in complex societies: Theory of global leadership-driven innovation, warfare and human development, Technology in Society, 42, 199-226. doi. 10.1016/j.techsoc.2015.05.008
Coccia, M. (2015c). Spatial relation between geo-climate zones and technological outputs to explain the evolution of technology. Int. J. Transitions and Innovation Systems, 4(1-2), 5-21. doi. 10.1504/IJTIS.2015.074642
Coccia, M. (2015d). Technological paradigms and trajectories as determinants of the R&D corporate change in drug discovery industry. International Journal Knowledge and Learning, 10(1), 29-43. doi. 10.1504/IJKL.2015.071052
Coccia, M. (2016). Asymmetric paths of public debts and of general government deficits across countries within and outside the European monetary unification and economic policy of debt dissolution. The Journal of Economic Asymmetries, 15, 17-31. doi. 10.1016/j.jeca.2016.10.003
Coccia, M. (2016a). Radical innovations as drivers of breakthroughs: characteristics and properties of the management of technology leading to superior organizational performance in the discovery process of R&D labs. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 28(4), 381-395. doi. 10.1080/09537325.2015.1095287
Coccia, M. (2016). Problem-driven innovations in drug discovery: co-evolution of radical innovation with the evolution of problems, Health Policy and Technology, 5(2), 143-155. doi. 10.1016/j.hlpt.2016.02.003
Coccia, M. (2016c). The relation between price setting in markets and asymmetries of systems of measurement of goods. The Journal of Economic Asymmetries, 14(B), 168-178. doi. 10.1016/j.jeca.2016.06.001
Coccia, M. (2017). The source and nature of general purpose technologies for supporting next K-waves: Global leadership and the case study of the U.S. Navy's Mobile User Objective System, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 116, 331-339. doi. 10.1016/j.techfore.2016.05.019
Coccia, M. (2017a). Optimization in R&D intensity and tax on corporate profits for supporting labor productivity of nations. The Journal of Technology Transfer, doi. 10.1007/s10961-017-9572-1
Coccia, M. (2017b). Varieties of capitalism’s theory of innovation and a conceptual integration with leadership-oriented executives: the relation between typologies of executive, technological and socioeconomic performances. Int. J. Public Sector Performance Management, 3(2), 148–168. doi. 10.1504/IJPSPM.2017.084672
Coccia, M. (2017c). Sources of disruptive technologies for industrial change. L’industria –rivista di Economia e Politicaindustriale, 38(1), 97-120.
Coccia, M. (2017d). Sources of technological innovation: Radical and incremental innovation problem-driven to support competitive advantage of firms. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 29(9), 1048-1061. doi. 10.1080/09537325.2016.1268682
Coccia, M. (2017e). A Theory of general causes of violent crime: Homicides, income inequality and deficiencies of the heat hypothesis and of the model of CLASH, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 37, 190-200. doi. 10.1016/j.avb.2017.10.005
Coccia, M. (2017f). New directions in measurement of economic growth, development and under development, Journal of Economics and Political Economy, 4(4), 382-395.
Coccia, M. (2017g). Disruptive firms and industrial change, Journal of Economic and Social Thought, 4(4), 437-450.
Coccia, M. (2017h). The Fishbone diagram to identify, systematize and analyze the sources of general purpose Technologies, Journal of Social and Administrative Sciences, 4(4), 291-303.
Coccia, M. (2018). A theory of the general causes of long waves: War, general purpose technologies, and economic change. Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 128, 287-295 10.1016/j.techfore.2017.11.013
Coccia, M. (2018a). The relation between terrorism and high population growth, Journal of Economics and Political Economy, 5(1), 84-104.
Coccia, M. (2018c). Violent crime driven by income Inequality between countries, Turkish Economic Review, 5(1), 33-55.
Coccia, M. (2018d). The origins of the economics of innovation, Journal of Economic and Social Thought, 5(1), 9-28.
Coccia, M. (2018e). Theorem of not independence of any technological innovation, Journal of Economics Bibliography, 5(1), 29-35.
Coccia, M. (2018e). Theorem of not independence of any technological innovation, Journal of Social and Administrative Sciences, 5(1), 15-33.
Coccia, M. (2018f). Classification of innovation considering technological interaction, Journal of Economics Bibliography, 5(2), 76-93.
Coccia, M. (2018g). An introduction to the methods od inquiry in social sciences, Journal of Social and Administrative Sciences, 5(2), 116-126.
Coccia, M. (2018h). Growth rate of population associated with high terrorism incidents in society, Journal of Economics Bibliography, 5(3), 142-158.
Coccia, M. (2018i). Motivations of scientific research in society, Journal of Social and Administrative Sciences, 5(3), 196-216.
Coccia, M. (2018j). Measurement and assessment of the evolution of technology with a simple biological model, Turkish Economic Review, 5(3), 263-284.
Coccia, M. (2018k). Functionality development of product innovation: An empirical analysis of the technological trajectories of smartphone, Journal of Economics Library, 5(3), 241-258.
Coccia, M., & Bellitto, M. (2018). Human progress and its socioeconomic effects in society, Journal of Economic and Social Thought, 5(2), 160-178.
Coccia, M., & Igor, M. (2018). Rewards in public administration: a proposed classification, Journal of Social and Administrative Sciences, 5(2), 68-80.
Coccia, M., & Bozeman, B. (2016). Allometric models to measure and analyze the evolution of international research collaboration. Scientometrics, 108(3), 1065-1084. doi. 10.1007/s11192-016-2027-x
Coccia, M., & Cadario, E. (2014). Organisational (un)learning of public research labs in turbulent context, International Journal of Innovation and Learning, 15(2), 115-129. doi. 10.1504/IJIL.2014.059756
Coccia, M., Falavigna, G., & Manello, A. 2015. The impact of hybrid public and market-oriented financing mechanisms on scientific portfolio and performances of public research labs: a scientometric analysis. Scientometrics, 102(1), 151-168. doi. 10.1007/s11192-014-1427-z
Coccia, M., & Finardi, U. (2012). Emerging nanotechnological research for future pathway of biomedicine. International Journal of Biomedical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 2 (3-4), 299-317. doi. 10.1504/IJBNN.2012.051223
Coccia, M., & Finardi, U. (2013). New technological trajectories of non-thermal plasma technology in medicine. International Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, 11(4), 337-356. doi. 10.1504/IJBET.2013.055665
Coccia, M., Finardi, U., & Margon, D. (2012). Current trends in nanotechnology research across worldwide geo-economic players, The Journal of Technology Transfer, 37(5), 777-787. doi. 10.1007/s10961-011-9219-6
Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2000). Ricerca pubblica e trasferimento tecnologico: il caso della regione Piemonte. In S. Rolfo (ed), Innovazione e piccole imprese in Piemonte, Franco Angeli Editore, Milano.
Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2002). Technology transfer analysis in the Italian national research council, Technovation - The International Journal of Technological Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 22(5), 291-299. doi. 10.1016/S0166-4972(01)00018-9
Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2007). How research policy changes can affect the organization and productivity of public research institutes, Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis, Research and Practice, 9(3) 215-233. doi. 10.1080/13876980701494624
Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2010). New entrepreneurial behaviour of public research organizations: opportunities and threats of technological services supply, International Journal of Services Technology and Management, 13(1-2), 134-151. doi. 10.1504/IJSTM.2010.029674
Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2013). Human resource management and organizational behavior of public research institutions, International Journal of Public Administration, 36(4), 256-268. doi. 10.1080/01900692.2012.756889
Coccia, M., & Rolfo, S. (2009). Project management in public research organization: Strategic change in complex scenarios. International Journal of Project Organisation and Management, 1(3), 235–252. doi. 10.1504/IJPOM.2009.027537
Coccia, M., & Wang, L. (2015). Path-breaking directions of nanotechnology-based chemotherapy and molecular cancer therapy, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 94, 155–169. doi. 10.1016/j.techfore.2014.09.007
Coccia, M., & Wang, L. (2016). Evolution and convergence of the patterns of international scientific collaboration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(8), 2057-2061. doi. 10.1073/pnas.1510820113
Dai, T., Liu, X., Xie, B. (2013). The impact of immigrants on host country crime. Economic Letters, 119(2), 157-161. doi. 10.1016/j.econlet.2013.02.007
DeCamp, W. (2015). Theories of crime and criminal behavior and their implications for security. Security Supervision and Management: Theory and Practice of Asset Protection, Fourth Edition.
Durkheim, É. (1893[2013]). De la Division du Travail Social. Presses Universitaires de France (PUF), Paris.
Ehrlich, P.R. (1968). The Population Bomb. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.
Elgar, F.J., & Aitken, N. (2011). Income inequality, trust and homicide in 33 countries. The European Journal of Public Health, 21(2), 241–246. doi. 10.1093/eurpub/ckq068
Eurostat, (2018). Accessed: 06.02.2018. [Retrieved from].
Fajnzylber, P., Lederman, D., & Loayza, N. (2002). Inequality and violent crime. The Journal of Law and Economics, 45(1), 1-39. doi. 10.1086/338347
Feldmeyer, B., Harris, C., & Scroggins, J. (2015). Enclaves of opportunity or ‘ghettos of last resort?’ Assessing the effects of immigrant segregation on violent crime rates. Social Science Research, 52, 1-17. doi. 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.01.00
Grogger, J.T. (1998). Immigration and crime among young black men: evidence from the national longitudinal survey of youth. In D.S. Hamermesh & F.D. Bean (Eds.), Help or Hinderance? The Economic Implications of Immigration for African Americans, Russell Sage, New York.
Hirschi, T. (1969). The Causes of Delinquency. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Hooghe, M., & de Vroome, T. (2015). The relation between ethnic diversity and fear of crime: an analysis of police records and survey data in Belgian communities. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 50, 66-75. doi. 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.11.002
Hugo, G. (2005). Migrants in society: diversity and cohesion. Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration, IOM – The UN Migration Agency, New York.
Kovandzic, T.V., Vieraitis, L.M., & Yeisley, M.R. (1998). The structural covariates of urban homicide: Reassessing the impact of income inequality and poverty in the post- Reagan era. Criminology, 36(3), 569-600. doi. 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01259.x
Krieger, T., & Meierrieks, D. (2010). Terrorism in the worlds of welfare capitalism. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 54(6), 902-939. doi. 10.1177/0022002710367885
Lee, B.X. (2016). Causes and cures VIII: Environmental violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 30, 105-109. doi. 10.1016/j.avb.2016.07.004
Reid, L. (2005). The immigration–crime relationship: Evidence across US metropolitan areas. Social Science Research, 34(4), 757-780. doi. 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2005.01.001
Sabbatucci, G., & Vidotto, V. (2008). Il Mondo Contemporaneo. Dal 1848 a oggi. Editore Laterza, Roma.
Stack, S. (1984). Income inequality and property crime. A cross-national analysis of relative deprivation theory. Criminology, 22(2), 229-256. doi. 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1984.tb00299.x
Wonnacott, T., & Wonnacott, R. (1990). Introductory Statistics. 5th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
